Threats for introduction of new pests - Revision history

KristinaG at 15:26, 10 December 2018

2018-12-10T15:26:02Z

KristinaG at 12:45, 20 November 2018

2018-11-20T12:45:20Z

KristinaG at 12:44, 20 November 2018

2018-11-20T12:44:53Z

KristinaG at 12:14, 20 November 2018

2018-11-20T12:14:46Z

KristinaG at 15:07, 19 November 2018

2018-11-19T15:07:51Z

KristinaG at 08:37, 14 November 2018

2018-11-14T08:37:06Z

KristinaG at 13:41, 14 June 2018

2018-06-14T13:41:21Z

KristinaG at 13:31, 14 June 2018

2018-06-14T13:31:26Z

KristinaG at 11:23, 14 June 2018

2018-06-14T11:23:30Z

KristinaG at 09:53, 6 June 2018

2018-06-06T09:53:17Z

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-Throughout history, with all the exploration trips and globalization, diseases affecting honey bee health have been spread worldwide. That led to host-shifts of pests/pathogens between introduced and native [[honey bee species and subspecies]]. '''''Varroa destructor''''' and '''''Nosema ceranae''''' are known to have swapped over from '''[[honey bee species and subspecies|''A. cerana'']]''' to '''[[honey bee species and subspecies|A. mellifera]]''', when the Western honey bee was introduced to Asia. On the opposite, '''Thai Sac Brood Virus''', '''Israeli Acute Paralysis Virus''' and several '''tracheal mites''' were originally observed in ''A. mellifera'' before spreading to ''A. cerana''. <ref>Botías, C., Anderson, D. L., Meana, A., Garrido-Bailón, E., Martín-Hernández, R., & Higes, M. (2012). Further evidence of an oriental origin for ''Nosema ceranae'' (Microsporidia: Nosematidae). Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 110(1), 108–113.</ref> <ref>Theisen-Jones, H., & Bienefeld, K. (2016). The Asian Honey Bee (''Apis cerana'') is Significantly in Decline. Bee World, 93(4), 90–97.</ref>
+Throughout history, with all the exploration trips and globalization, diseases affecting '''[[Honey bee health (Overview)|honey bee health]]''' have been spread worldwide. That led to host-shifts of pests/pathogens between introduced and native [[honey bee species and subspecies]]. '''[[Varroa|''Varroa destructor'']]''' and '''[[Nosema|''Nosema ceranae'']]''' are known to have swapped over from '''[[honey bee species and subspecies|''A. cerana'']]''' to '''[[honey bee species and subspecies|''A. mellifera'']]''', when the Western honey bee was introduced to Asia. On the opposite, '''Thai Sac Brood Virus''', '''Israeli Acute Paralysis Virus''' and several '''tracheal mites''' were originally observed in ''A. mellifera'' before spreading to ''A. cerana''. <ref>Botías, C., Anderson, D. L., Meana, A., Garrido-Bailón, E., Martín-Hernández, R., & Higes, M. (2012). Further evidence of an oriental origin for ''Nosema ceranae'' (Microsporidia: Nosematidae). Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 110(1), 108–113.</ref> <ref>Theisen-Jones, H., & Bienefeld, K. (2016). The Asian Honey Bee (''Apis cerana'') is Significantly in Decline. Bee World, 93(4), 90–97.</ref>
 ----
-'''Ethiopia:''' The exchange of diseases or parasites is always possible through neighbouring countries (i.e. Eritrea, Uganda, Somalia, Kenya, Sudan, South-Sudan, or Djibouti). '''[[Foulbrood]]''' is so far no officially observed disease in Ethiopia, but was detected in Eritrea and therefore may spread through the international border to Ethiopia and other neighbouring countries. <ref name="Ellis">Ellis, J. D., & Munn, P. A. (2005). The worldwide health status of honey bees. Bee World, 86(4), 88–101.</ref> '''[[Tropilaelaps spp.|''Tropilaelaps'' spp.]]''' was discovered in Kenya. <ref name="Ellis"/> While in Uganda only the Black queen cell virus (BQCV) was detected, <ref>Kajobe, R., Marris, G., Budge, G., Laurenson, L., Cordoni, G., Jones, B., … Brown, M. A. (2010). First molecular detection of a viral pathogen in Ugandan honey bees. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 104(2), 153–156.</ref> in Kenya, three viruses affecting the health of honey bees were observed: Deformed Wing Virus, BQCV and Acute bee paralysis virus. <ref>Muli, E., Patch, H., Frazier, M., Frazier, J., Torto, B., Baumgarten, T., … Grozinger, C. (2014). Evaluation of the distribution and impacts of parasites, pathogens, and pesticides on honey bee (''Apis mellifera'') populations in East Africa. PloS One, 9(4), e94459.</ref> Another notable factor is the international trade and transport of honey bee colonies.
+'''Ethiopia:''' The exchange of diseases or parasites is always possible through neighbouring countries (i.e. Eritrea, Uganda, Somalia, Kenya, Sudan, South-Sudan, or Djibouti). '''[[Foulbrood]]''' is so far no officially observed disease in Ethiopia, but was detected in Eritrea and therefore may spread through the international border to Ethiopia and other neighbouring countries. <ref name="Ellis">Ellis, J. D., & Munn, P. A. (2005). The worldwide health status of honey bees. Bee World, 86(4), 88–101.</ref> '''[[Tropilaelaps spp.|''Tropilaelaps'' spp.]]''' was discovered in Kenya. <ref name="Ellis"/> While in Uganda only the Black queen cell '''[[Viruses|virus]]''' (BQCV) was detected, <ref>Kajobe, R., Marris, G., Budge, G., Laurenson, L., Cordoni, G., Jones, B., …, & Brown, M. A. (2010). First molecular detection of a viral pathogen in Ugandan honey bees. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 104(2), 153–156.</ref> in Kenya, three viruses affecting the health of honey bees were observed: Deformed Wing Virus, BQCV and Acute bee paralysis virus. <ref>Muli, E., Patch, H., Frazier, M., Frazier, J., Torto, B., Baumgarten, T., …, & Grozinger, C. (2014). Evaluation of the distribution and impacts of parasites, pathogens, and pesticides on honey bee (''Apis mellifera'') populations in East Africa. PloS One, 9(4), e94459.</ref> Another notable factor is the international trade and transport of honey bee colonies.
-'''Indonesia:''' The country consists mainly of islands but also shares borders with Malaysia and Australia. Despite Australia is known to have strict border regulations, the rate of disease exchange is high at over-land boundaries. <ref>Thompson, R. C. A., Owen, I. L., Puana, I., Banks, D., Davis, T. M. E., & Reid, S. A. (2003). Parasites and biosecurity – the example of Australia. Trends in Parasitology, 19(9), 410–416.</ref> There is almost '''no information''' on honey bee disease distribution in Indonesia, but it is considered, that the transport of goods over sea is also a major risk for the distribution of pests and pathogens. One example for a possible future threat for Indonesians' apisector is the small hive beetle (SHB). While there is no data on the presence/absence in Indonesia, SHB occurs in the neighbouring Australia. <ref name="Ellis"/> As mentioned above, international trade and transport of honey bee colonies is also considered to be a risk regarding the introduction of new pests.
+'''Indonesia:''' The country consists mainly of islands but also shares borders with Malaysia and Australia. Despite Australia is known to have strict border regulations, the rate of disease exchange is high at over-land boundaries. <ref>Thompson, R. C. A., Owen, I. L., Puana, I., Banks, D., Davis, T. M. E., & Reid, S. A. (2003). Parasites and biosecurity – the example of Australia. Trends in Parasitology, 19(9), 410–416.</ref> There is almost '''no information''' on honey bee disease distribution in Indonesia, but it is considered, that the transport of goods over sea is also a major risk for the distribution of pests and pathogens. One example for a possible future threat for Indonesians' apisector is the '''[[Coleoptera|small hive beetle]]''' (SHB). While there is no data on the presence/absence in Indonesia, SHB occurs in the neighbouring Australia. <ref name="Ellis"/> As mentioned above, international trade and transport of honey bee colonies is also considered to be a risk regarding the introduction of new pests.
 ==References==
 <references/>

← Older revision		Revision as of 12:45, 20 November 2018
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−	'''Ethiopia:''' The exchange of diseases or parasites is always possible through neighbouring countries (i.e. Eritrea, Uganda, Somalia, Kenya, Sudan, South-Sudan, or Djibouti). '''[[Foulbrood]]''' is so far no officially observed disease in Ethiopia, but was detected in Eritrea and therefore may spread through the international border to Ethiopia and other neighbouring countries. <ref name="Ellis">Ellis, J. D., & Munn, P. A. (2005). The worldwide health status of honey bees. Bee World, 86(4), 88–101.</ref> '''[[Tropilaelaps spp.\|''Tropilaelaps'' spp.]]''' was discovered in Kenya. <ref name="Ellis"/> While in Uganda only the Black queen cell virus (BQCV) was detected, <ref>Kajobe, R., Marris, G., Budge, G., Laurenson, L., Cordoni, G., Jones, B., … Brown, M. A. (2010). First molecular detection of a viral pathogen in Ugandan honey bees. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 104(2), 153–156.</ref> in Kenya, three viruses affecting the health of honey bees were observed: Deformed Wing Virus, BQCV, Acute bee paralysis virus. <ref>Muli, E., Patch, H., Frazier, M., Frazier, J., Torto, B., Baumgarten, T., … Grozinger, C. (2014). Evaluation of the distribution and impacts of parasites, pathogens, and pesticides on honey bee (''Apis mellifera'') populations in East Africa. PloS One, 9(4), e94459.</ref> Another notable factor is the international trade and transport of honey bee colonies.	+	'''Ethiopia:''' The exchange of diseases or parasites is always possible through neighbouring countries (i.e. Eritrea, Uganda, Somalia, Kenya, Sudan, South-Sudan, or Djibouti). '''[[Foulbrood]]''' is so far no officially observed disease in Ethiopia, but was detected in Eritrea and therefore may spread through the international border to Ethiopia and other neighbouring countries. <ref name="Ellis">Ellis, J. D., & Munn, P. A. (2005). The worldwide health status of honey bees. Bee World, 86(4), 88–101.</ref> '''[[Tropilaelaps spp.\|''Tropilaelaps'' spp.]]''' was discovered in Kenya. <ref name="Ellis"/> While in Uganda only the Black queen cell virus (BQCV) was detected, <ref>Kajobe, R., Marris, G., Budge, G., Laurenson, L., Cordoni, G., Jones, B., … Brown, M. A. (2010). First molecular detection of a viral pathogen in Ugandan honey bees. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 104(2), 153–156.</ref> in Kenya, three viruses affecting the health of honey bees were observed: Deformed Wing Virus, BQCV and Acute bee paralysis virus. <ref>Muli, E., Patch, H., Frazier, M., Frazier, J., Torto, B., Baumgarten, T., … Grozinger, C. (2014). Evaluation of the distribution and impacts of parasites, pathogens, and pesticides on honey bee (''Apis mellifera'') populations in East Africa. PloS One, 9(4), e94459.</ref> Another notable factor is the international trade and transport of honey bee colonies.

← Older revision		Revision as of 12:44, 20 November 2018
Line 3:		Line 3:


−	'''Ethiopia:''' The exchange of diseases or parasites is always possible through neighbouring countries (i.e. Eritrea, Uganda, Somalia, Kenya, Sudan, South-Sudan, or Djibouti). '''[[Foulbrood]]''' is so far no officially observed disease in Ethiopia, but was detected in Eritrea and therefore may spread through the international border to Ethiopia and other neighbouring countries. <ref name="Ellis">Ellis, J. D., & Munn, P. A. (2005). The worldwide health status of honey bees. Bee World, 86(4), 88–101.</ref> '''[[Tropilaelaps spp.\|''Tropilaelaps'' spp.]]''' was discovered in Kenya. <ref name="Ellis"/> While in Uganda only the ~~black~~ queen cell virus was detected~~, in Kenya~~, <ref>Kajobe, R., Marris, G., Budge, G., Laurenson, L., Cordoni, G., Jones, B., … Brown, M. A. (2010). First molecular detection of a viral pathogen in Ugandan honey bees. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 104(2), 153–156.</ref> three viruses affecting the health of honey bees were observed: Deformed Wing Virus, ~~Black queen cell virus~~, Acute be paralysis virus. <ref>Muli, E., Patch, H., Frazier, M., Frazier, J., Torto, B., Baumgarten, T., … Grozinger, C. (2014). Evaluation of the distribution and impacts of parasites, pathogens, and pesticides on honey bee (''Apis mellifera'') populations in East Africa. PloS One, 9(4), e94459.</ref> Another notable factor is the international trade and transport of honey bee colonies.	+	'''Ethiopia:''' The exchange of diseases or parasites is always possible through neighbouring countries (i.e. Eritrea, Uganda, Somalia, Kenya, Sudan, South-Sudan, or Djibouti). '''[[Foulbrood]]''' is so far no officially observed disease in Ethiopia, but was detected in Eritrea and therefore may spread through the international border to Ethiopia and other neighbouring countries. <ref name="Ellis">Ellis, J. D., & Munn, P. A. (2005). The worldwide health status of honey bees. Bee World, 86(4), 88–101.</ref> '''[[Tropilaelaps spp.\|''Tropilaelaps'' spp.]]''' was discovered in Kenya. <ref name="Ellis"/> While in Uganda only the Black queen cell virus (BQCV) was detected, <ref>Kajobe, R., Marris, G., Budge, G., Laurenson, L., Cordoni, G., Jones, B., … Brown, M. A. (2010). First molecular detection of a viral pathogen in Ugandan honey bees. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 104(2), 153–156.</ref> in Kenya, three viruses affecting the health of honey bees were observed: Deformed Wing Virus, BQCV, Acute bee paralysis virus. <ref>Muli, E., Patch, H., Frazier, M., Frazier, J., Torto, B., Baumgarten, T., … Grozinger, C. (2014). Evaluation of the distribution and impacts of parasites, pathogens, and pesticides on honey bee (''Apis mellifera'') populations in East Africa. PloS One, 9(4), e94459.</ref> Another notable factor is the international trade and transport of honey bee colonies.

← Older revision		Revision as of 12:14, 20 November 2018
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−	'''Ethiopia:''' The exchange of diseases or parasites is always possible through neighbouring countries (i.e. Eritrea, Uganda, Somalia, Kenya, Sudan, South-Sudan, or Djibouti). ~~For example~~ '''[[~~foulbrood~~]]''' is so far no officially observed disease in Ethiopia, but was detected in Eritrea and therefore may spread through the international border to Ethiopia and other neighbouring countries. <ref name="Ellis">Ellis, J. D., & Munn, P. A. (2005). The worldwide health status of honey bees. Bee World, 86(4), 88–101.</ref> Another notable factor is the international trade and transport of honey bee colonies.	+	'''Ethiopia:''' The exchange of diseases or parasites is always possible through neighbouring countries (i.e. Eritrea, Uganda, Somalia, Kenya, Sudan, South-Sudan, or Djibouti). '''[[Foulbrood]]''' is so far no officially observed disease in Ethiopia, but was detected in Eritrea and therefore may spread through the international border to Ethiopia and other neighbouring countries. <ref name="Ellis">Ellis, J. D., & Munn, P. A. (2005). The worldwide health status of honey bees. Bee World, 86(4), 88–101.</ref> '''[[Tropilaelaps spp.\|''Tropilaelaps'' spp.]]''' was discovered in Kenya. <ref name="Ellis"/> While in Uganda only the black queen cell virus was detected, in Kenya, <ref>Kajobe, R., Marris, G., Budge, G., Laurenson, L., Cordoni, G., Jones, B., … Brown, M. A. (2010). First molecular detection of a viral pathogen in Ugandan honey bees. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 104(2), 153–156.</ref> three viruses affecting the health of honey bees were observed: Deformed Wing Virus, Black queen cell virus, Acute be paralysis virus. <ref>Muli, E., Patch, H., Frazier, M., Frazier, J., Torto, B., Baumgarten, T., … Grozinger, C. (2014). Evaluation of the distribution and impacts of parasites, pathogens, and pesticides on honey bee (''Apis mellifera'') populations in East Africa. PloS One, 9(4), e94459.</ref> Another notable factor is the international trade and transport of honey bee colonies.

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-Throughout history, with all the exploration trips and globalization, diseases affecting honey bee health have been spread worldwide. That led to host-shifts of pests/pathogens between introduced and native [[honey bee species and subspecies]]. '''''Varroa destructor''''' and '''''Nosema ceranae''''' are known to have swapped over from '''[[honey bee species and subspecies|''A. cerana'']]''' to '''[[honey bee species and subspecies|A. mellifera]]''', when the Western honey bee was introduced to Asia. On the opposite, '''Thai Sac Brood Virus''', '''Israeli Acute Paralysis Virus''' and several '''tracheal mites''' were originally observed in ''A. mellifera'' before spreading to ''A. cerana''. <ref>Botías, C., Anderson, D. L., Meana, A., Garrido-Bailón, E., Martín-Hernández, R., & Higes, M. (2012). Further evidence of an oriental origin for ''Nosema ceranae'' (Microsporidia: Nosematidae). Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 110(1), 108–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jip.2012.02.014</ref> <ref>Theisen-Jones, H., & Bienefeld, K. (2016). The Asian Honey Bee (''Apis cerana'') is Significantly in Decline. Bee World, 93(4), 90–97. https://doi.org/10.1080/0005772X.2017.1284973</ref>
+Throughout history, with all the exploration trips and globalization, diseases affecting honey bee health have been spread worldwide. That led to host-shifts of pests/pathogens between introduced and native [[honey bee species and subspecies]]. '''''Varroa destructor''''' and '''''Nosema ceranae''''' are known to have swapped over from '''[[honey bee species and subspecies|''A. cerana'']]''' to '''[[honey bee species and subspecies|A. mellifera]]''', when the Western honey bee was introduced to Asia. On the opposite, '''Thai Sac Brood Virus''', '''Israeli Acute Paralysis Virus''' and several '''tracheal mites''' were originally observed in ''A. mellifera'' before spreading to ''A. cerana''. <ref>Botías, C., Anderson, D. L., Meana, A., Garrido-Bailón, E., Martín-Hernández, R., & Higes, M. (2012). Further evidence of an oriental origin for ''Nosema ceranae'' (Microsporidia: Nosematidae). Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 110(1), 108–113.</ref> <ref>Theisen-Jones, H., & Bienefeld, K. (2016). The Asian Honey Bee (''Apis cerana'') is Significantly in Decline. Bee World, 93(4), 90–97.</ref>
 ----
-'''Ethiopia:''' The exchange of diseases or parasites is always possible through neighbouring countries (i.e. Eritrea, Uganda, Somalia, Kenya, Sudan, South-Sudan, or Djibouti). For example '''[[foulbrood]]''' is so far no officially observed disease in Ethiopia, but was detected in Eritrea and therefore may spread through the international border to Ethiopia and other neighbouring countries. <ref name="Ellis">Ellis, J. D., & Munn, P. A. (2005). The worldwide health status of honey bees. Bee World, 86(4), 88–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/0005772X.2005.11417323</ref> Another notable factor is the international trade and transport of honey bee colonies.
+'''Ethiopia:''' The exchange of diseases or parasites is always possible through neighbouring countries (i.e. Eritrea, Uganda, Somalia, Kenya, Sudan, South-Sudan, or Djibouti). For example '''[[foulbrood]]''' is so far no officially observed disease in Ethiopia, but was detected in Eritrea and therefore may spread through the international border to Ethiopia and other neighbouring countries. <ref name="Ellis">Ellis, J. D., & Munn, P. A. (2005). The worldwide health status of honey bees. Bee World, 86(4), 88–101.</ref> Another notable factor is the international trade and transport of honey bee colonies.
-'''Indonesia:''' The country consists mainly of islands but also shares borders with Malaysia and Australia. Despite Australia is known to have strict border regulations, the rate of disease exchange is high at over-land boundaries. <ref>Thompson, R. C. A., Owen, I. L., Puana, I., Banks, D., Davis, T. M. E., & Reid, S. A. (2003). Parasites and biosecurity – the example of Australia. Trends in Parasitology, 19(9), 410–416. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1471-4922(03)00197-1</ref> There is almost '''no information''' on honey bee disease distribution in Indonesia, but it is considered, that the transport of goods over sea is also a major risk for the distribution of pests and pathogens. One example for a possible future threat for Indonesians' apisector is the small hive beetle (SHB). While there is no data on the presence/absence in Indonesia, SHB occurs in the neighbouring Australia. <ref name="Ellis"/> As mentioned above, international trade and transport of honey bee colonies is also considered to be a risk regarding the introduction of new pests.
+'''Indonesia:''' The country consists mainly of islands but also shares borders with Malaysia and Australia. Despite Australia is known to have strict border regulations, the rate of disease exchange is high at over-land boundaries. <ref>Thompson, R. C. A., Owen, I. L., Puana, I., Banks, D., Davis, T. M. E., & Reid, S. A. (2003). Parasites and biosecurity – the example of Australia. Trends in Parasitology, 19(9), 410–416.</ref> There is almost '''no information''' on honey bee disease distribution in Indonesia, but it is considered, that the transport of goods over sea is also a major risk for the distribution of pests and pathogens. One example for a possible future threat for Indonesians' apisector is the small hive beetle (SHB). While there is no data on the presence/absence in Indonesia, SHB occurs in the neighbouring Australia. <ref name="Ellis"/> As mentioned above, international trade and transport of honey bee colonies is also considered to be a risk regarding the introduction of new pests.
 ==References==
 <references/>

← Older revision		Revision as of 08:37, 14 November 2018
Line 1:		Line 1:
−	Throughout history, with all the exploration trips and globalization, diseases affecting honey bee health have been spread worldwide. That led to host-shifts of pests/pathogens between introduced and native [[honey bee species and subspecies]]. '''''Varroa destructor''''' and '''''Nosema ceranae''''' are known to have swapped over from ''[[A. cerana]]'' to ''[[A. mellifera]]'', when the Western honey bee was introduced to Asia. On the opposite, '''Thai Sac Brood Virus''', '''Israeli Acute Paralysis Virus''' and several '''tracheal mites''' were originally observed in ''A. mellifera'' before spreading to ''A. cerana''. <ref>Botías, C., Anderson, D. L., Meana, A., Garrido-Bailón, E., Martín-Hernández, R., & Higes, M. (2012). Further evidence of an oriental origin for ''Nosema ceranae'' (Microsporidia: Nosematidae). Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 110(1), 108–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jip.2012.02.014</ref> <ref>Theisen-Jones, H., & Bienefeld, K. (2016). The Asian Honey Bee (''Apis cerana'') is Significantly in Decline. Bee World, 93(4), 90–97. https://doi.org/10.1080/0005772X.2017.1284973</ref>	+	Throughout history, with all the exploration trips and globalization, diseases affecting honey bee health have been spread worldwide. That led to host-shifts of pests/pathogens between introduced and native [[honey bee species and subspecies]]. '''''Varroa destructor''''' and '''''Nosema ceranae''''' are known to have swapped over from '''[[honey bee species and subspecies\|''A. cerana'']]''' to '''[[honey bee species and subspecies\|A. mellifera]]''', when the Western honey bee was introduced to Asia. On the opposite, '''Thai Sac Brood Virus''', '''Israeli Acute Paralysis Virus''' and several '''tracheal mites''' were originally observed in ''A. mellifera'' before spreading to ''A. cerana''. <ref>Botías, C., Anderson, D. L., Meana, A., Garrido-Bailón, E., Martín-Hernández, R., & Higes, M. (2012). Further evidence of an oriental origin for ''Nosema ceranae'' (Microsporidia: Nosematidae). Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 110(1), 108–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jip.2012.02.014</ref> <ref>Theisen-Jones, H., & Bienefeld, K. (2016). The Asian Honey Bee (''Apis cerana'') is Significantly in Decline. Bee World, 93(4), 90–97. https://doi.org/10.1080/0005772X.2017.1284973</ref>
	----		----

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-Throughout history, with all the exploration trips and globalization, diseases affecting honey bee health have been spread worldwide. That led to host-shifts of pests/pathogens within introduced and native [[honey bee species and subspecies]]. '''''Varroa destructor''''' and '''''Nosema ceranae''''' are known to swapped over from ''[[A. cerana]]'' to ''[[A. mellifera]]'', when the European honey bee was introduced to Asia. On the opposite, '''Thai Sac Brood Virus''', '''Israeli Acute Paralysis Virus''' and several '''tracheal mites''' were originally observed in ''A. mellifera'' before spreading to ''A. cerana''. <ref>Botías, C., Anderson, D. L., Meana, A., Garrido-Bailón, E., Martín-Hernández, R., & Higes, M. (2012). Further evidence of an oriental origin for ''Nosema ceranae'' (Microsporidia: Nosematidae). Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 110(1), 108–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jip.2012.02.014</ref> <ref>Theisen-Jones, H., & Bienefeld, K. (2016). The Asian Honey Bee (''Apis cerana'') is Significantly in Decline. Bee World, 93(4), 90–97. https://doi.org/10.1080/0005772X.2017.1284973</ref>
+Throughout history, with all the exploration trips and globalization, diseases affecting honey bee health have been spread worldwide. That led to host-shifts of pests/pathogens between introduced and native [[honey bee species and subspecies]]. '''''Varroa destructor''''' and '''''Nosema ceranae''''' are known to have swapped over from ''[[A. cerana]]'' to ''[[A. mellifera]]'', when the Western honey bee was introduced to Asia. On the opposite, '''Thai Sac Brood Virus''', '''Israeli Acute Paralysis Virus''' and several '''tracheal mites''' were originally observed in ''A. mellifera'' before spreading to ''A. cerana''. <ref>Botías, C., Anderson, D. L., Meana, A., Garrido-Bailón, E., Martín-Hernández, R., & Higes, M. (2012). Further evidence of an oriental origin for ''Nosema ceranae'' (Microsporidia: Nosematidae). Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 110(1), 108–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jip.2012.02.014</ref> <ref>Theisen-Jones, H., & Bienefeld, K. (2016). The Asian Honey Bee (''Apis cerana'') is Significantly in Decline. Bee World, 93(4), 90–97. https://doi.org/10.1080/0005772X.2017.1284973</ref>
 ----
-'''Ethiopia:''' The exchange of diseases or parasites is always possible through neighbouring countries (i.e. Eritrea, Uganda, Somalia, Kenya, Sudan, South-Sudan, or Djibouti). For example '''[[foulbrood]]''' is so far no officially observed disease in Ethiopia, but was detected in Eritrea and therefore may spread through the international border to Ethiopia and other neighboring countries. <ref name="Ellis">Ellis, J. D., & Munn, P. A. (2005). The worldwide health status of honey bees. Bee World, 86(4), 88–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/0005772X.2005.11417323</ref>
+'''Ethiopia:''' The exchange of diseases or parasites is always possible through neighbouring countries (i.e. Eritrea, Uganda, Somalia, Kenya, Sudan, South-Sudan, or Djibouti). For example '''[[foulbrood]]''' is so far no officially observed disease in Ethiopia, but was detected in Eritrea and therefore may spread through the international border to Ethiopia and other neighboring countries. <ref name="Ellis">Ellis, J. D., & Munn, P. A. (2005). The worldwide health status of honey bees. Bee World, 86(4), 88–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/0005772X.2005.11417323</ref> Another notable factor is the international trade and transport of honey bee colonies.
-'''Indonesia:''' The country consists mainly of islands but also shares borders with Malaysia and Australia. Despite Australia is known to have strict border regulations, the rate of disease exchange is high at over-land boundaries. <ref>Thompson, R. C. A., Owen, I. L., Puana, I., Banks, D., Davis, T. M. E., & Reid, S. A. (2003). Parasites and biosecurity – the example of Australia. Trends in Parasitology, 19(9), 410–416. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1471-4922(03)00197-1</ref> There is almost '''no information''' on honey bee disease distribution in Indonesia, but it is considered, that the transport of goods over sea is also a major risk for the distribution of pests and pathogens. One example for a possible future threat for Indonesians' apisector is the small hive beetle (SHB). While there is no data on the presence/absence in INdonesia, SHB occurs in the neighbouring Australia. <ref name="Ellis"/>
+'''Indonesia:''' The country consists mainly of islands but also shares borders with Malaysia and Australia. Despite Australia is known to have strict border regulations, the rate of disease exchange is high at over-land boundaries. <ref>Thompson, R. C. A., Owen, I. L., Puana, I., Banks, D., Davis, T. M. E., & Reid, S. A. (2003). Parasites and biosecurity – the example of Australia. Trends in Parasitology, 19(9), 410–416. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1471-4922(03)00197-1</ref> There is almost '''no information''' on honey bee disease distribution in Indonesia, but it is considered, that the transport of goods over sea is also a major risk for the distribution of pests and pathogens. One example for a possible future threat for Indonesians' apisector is the small hive beetle (SHB). While there is no data on the presence/absence in INdonesia, SHB occurs in the neighbouring Australia. <ref name="Ellis"/> As mentioned above, international trade and transport of honey bee colonies is also considered to be a risk regarding the introduction of new pests.
 ==References==
 <references/>